The Norman Cathedral
A grid of unit squares can give insight into the layout of a church. There are 54 foot squares in the Nave of York, 42½ foot squares at Bury St Edmunds Abbey, c40 foot squares in Exeter nave, 40 foot squares at Hereford and Tewkesbury, 39 foot squares at Peterborough 2 and Salisbury,3 c37½ foot squares at Tintern, 37 foot squares at Worcester, Bristol and Wells and 33 foot squares at Ely, Beverley and Abbey Dore. The module of Bishop Urban's Norman Cathedral, started on 14th April 1121,4 is 37 feet, which is the distance from the sanctuary arch to the west face of the east wall of the presbytery.
A conjectural skeleton of Urban's church consisting of four 37' squares is given on the ground plan (Figure 1). 5 Wide, shallow transepts as indicated here are very unusual. The later transepts and nave at Wells follow this pattern of squares as regards the ground plan, 6 but as there are aisles to both transepts and nave, the transepts appear to be long and narrow. The first Norman church at Glastonbury, 7 based apparently on a 33 foot module, had transepts whose projections beyond the aisles were wide shallow spaces each with an apse, similar to the reconstructed transepts at Llandaff.
Nevertheless the reconstruction can be made with some confidence. The eastern limb is represented by existing Norman fragments in the presbytery. The spiral staircase which lies somewhat illogically within a wall of the later chapter house is perfectly positioned in the south east corner of the former transept (Figure 1 and roundel, Figure 10). Its Norman date is confirmed by its construction in stone from Sutton near Southerndown, which is a characteristic of Urban's Cathedral. 8 The north west corner of the north transept can still be seen, inconspicuously incorporated in the exterior of the north aisle wall. 9
The presumed disposition of the Norman walls on the skeleton of squares, based on this data, is shown in Figure 2. The internal proportions of the presbytery are 1:√2. This was a ratio much used by Norman masons. 10
A square shown in blue whose side is the external east-west width of the transept has diagonal 1½ x 37'. The external width of the transept was therefore (1½ x 37') / √2, or 1½ times the internal width of the presbytery. The transept was not disposed symmetrically over the 37’ square. The west face of the blue square coincides with the west face of the 37’ square. Half the diagonal of the blue square, i.e. ¾ x 37' gives the internal east-west width of the transept.
The absence of a third presbytery window to the west of the two that are known (Figure 10) indicates the former existence of a south transept apse or chapel. Evidence for the equivalent structure leading off the north transept is provided by the measure indicated in yellow in Figure 2, between the line of the north face of the north presbytery arch pier and the north internal face of the chapter house vestibule. This measure is (1½ x 37') / √2 or ¾ x 37√2’, the external east west width of the transept. The north face of the north presbytery arch pier is positioned within the area occupied by the east wall of the north transept, and could be the jamb of an opening in that wall, although it is not symmetrical with the later opening in the east wall of the south transept. The organ currently prevents examination of the masonry of this face, but the stones in the immediately adjacent east face are coursed with the respond of the Decorated presbytery arcade, and the corner stones are common to both faces, so that the proposed jamb was refaced. The south transept chapel was also rebuilt, but for the Norman measure to be present, both faces must be in their original positions. Apart from this detail, the reconstruction of the transept apses in Figure 2 is conjectural. The spiral staircase would originally have opened into the entrance to the apse.
Near the north east corner of the north transept some Norman stones can be made out behind later buttresses, but further to the west than expected. There may have been a stair turret in the north transept equivalent to that in the south transept, which was demolished with the east wall when the north presbytery aisle was built. The corner resulting from the laying out of the presbytery aisle somewhat to the south of the 37' line may then have been made good using Norman stones in part.
The westward extent of the nave is conjectural. A symmetrical design is consistent with the upper seal impression 11 but there could have been another 37’ square to the west giving an overall design of five squares, or there may have been another relationship governing the length of the nave.
The Norman cathedral had no aisles, as is shown by the position of the remains of the windows in the presbytery. There were two ranges of windows. Bases associated with the upper range were found in the Victorian restoration on the north side of the presbytery at the level of the existing clerestory passage.12 A print by Thornton (Figure 21) shows a view of the mediaeval cathedral from the north. What may have been the Norman upper range of windows in the presbytery is shown as an otherwise unknown arrangement of alternating large and small windows. The position of the existing fragments of Norman windows in the presbytery shows that it was designed in three bays. The print depicts the cells of the blind arcade on the west front in exactly the same way as the windows. Probably there were three windows on each side in the upper range, separated by blind arches. There may have been a central tower or turret, and towers on either side of the apse which lay to the east of the existing Norman arch. These are shown on both seal impressions, but have not been demonstrated archaeologically. Bases of the eastern crossing arch were found under the bases of the present sanctuary arch. 13
Twin eastern towers may have existed at Old Sarum, and can still be seen at Exeter, though they appear more central now, due to the lengthening of the eastern limb. Small towers adjoin the eastern transepts at Canterbury, though the effect is lessened by the subsequent raising of the transept walls. The immediate precedent for the Norman cathedral appears to be the eastern limb at Hereford, probably designed c 1080-1090 and consecrated by 1115. There was a large central apse opening from a single arch, and smaller apses at the ends of the aisles. Towers stood over the eastern bays of the aisles. The presbytery was laid out in three bays. 14 The designer of the Early English nave at Llandaff probably assumed that the apse and eastern towers would be demolished, for provision seems to have been made for towers over the eastern bays of the nave aisles, which would have made the earlier towers superfluous. This intention survived a change of design, but the towers do not appear to have been built.
A conjectural skeleton of Urban's church consisting of four 37' squares is given on the ground plan (Figure 1). 5 Wide, shallow transepts as indicated here are very unusual. The later transepts and nave at Wells follow this pattern of squares as regards the ground plan, 6 but as there are aisles to both transepts and nave, the transepts appear to be long and narrow. The first Norman church at Glastonbury, 7 based apparently on a 33 foot module, had transepts whose projections beyond the aisles were wide shallow spaces each with an apse, similar to the reconstructed transepts at Llandaff.
Nevertheless the reconstruction can be made with some confidence. The eastern limb is represented by existing Norman fragments in the presbytery. The spiral staircase which lies somewhat illogically within a wall of the later chapter house is perfectly positioned in the south east corner of the former transept (Figure 1 and roundel, Figure 10). Its Norman date is confirmed by its construction in stone from Sutton near Southerndown, which is a characteristic of Urban's Cathedral. 8 The north west corner of the north transept can still be seen, inconspicuously incorporated in the exterior of the north aisle wall. 9
The presumed disposition of the Norman walls on the skeleton of squares, based on this data, is shown in Figure 2. The internal proportions of the presbytery are 1:√2. This was a ratio much used by Norman masons. 10
A square shown in blue whose side is the external east-west width of the transept has diagonal 1½ x 37'. The external width of the transept was therefore (1½ x 37') / √2, or 1½ times the internal width of the presbytery. The transept was not disposed symmetrically over the 37’ square. The west face of the blue square coincides with the west face of the 37’ square. Half the diagonal of the blue square, i.e. ¾ x 37' gives the internal east-west width of the transept.
The absence of a third presbytery window to the west of the two that are known (Figure 10) indicates the former existence of a south transept apse or chapel. Evidence for the equivalent structure leading off the north transept is provided by the measure indicated in yellow in Figure 2, between the line of the north face of the north presbytery arch pier and the north internal face of the chapter house vestibule. This measure is (1½ x 37') / √2 or ¾ x 37√2’, the external east west width of the transept. The north face of the north presbytery arch pier is positioned within the area occupied by the east wall of the north transept, and could be the jamb of an opening in that wall, although it is not symmetrical with the later opening in the east wall of the south transept. The organ currently prevents examination of the masonry of this face, but the stones in the immediately adjacent east face are coursed with the respond of the Decorated presbytery arcade, and the corner stones are common to both faces, so that the proposed jamb was refaced. The south transept chapel was also rebuilt, but for the Norman measure to be present, both faces must be in their original positions. Apart from this detail, the reconstruction of the transept apses in Figure 2 is conjectural. The spiral staircase would originally have opened into the entrance to the apse.
Near the north east corner of the north transept some Norman stones can be made out behind later buttresses, but further to the west than expected. There may have been a stair turret in the north transept equivalent to that in the south transept, which was demolished with the east wall when the north presbytery aisle was built. The corner resulting from the laying out of the presbytery aisle somewhat to the south of the 37' line may then have been made good using Norman stones in part.
The westward extent of the nave is conjectural. A symmetrical design is consistent with the upper seal impression 11 but there could have been another 37’ square to the west giving an overall design of five squares, or there may have been another relationship governing the length of the nave.
The Norman cathedral had no aisles, as is shown by the position of the remains of the windows in the presbytery. There were two ranges of windows. Bases associated with the upper range were found in the Victorian restoration on the north side of the presbytery at the level of the existing clerestory passage.12 A print by Thornton (Figure 21) shows a view of the mediaeval cathedral from the north. What may have been the Norman upper range of windows in the presbytery is shown as an otherwise unknown arrangement of alternating large and small windows. The position of the existing fragments of Norman windows in the presbytery shows that it was designed in three bays. The print depicts the cells of the blind arcade on the west front in exactly the same way as the windows. Probably there were three windows on each side in the upper range, separated by blind arches. There may have been a central tower or turret, and towers on either side of the apse which lay to the east of the existing Norman arch. These are shown on both seal impressions, but have not been demonstrated archaeologically. Bases of the eastern crossing arch were found under the bases of the present sanctuary arch. 13
Twin eastern towers may have existed at Old Sarum, and can still be seen at Exeter, though they appear more central now, due to the lengthening of the eastern limb. Small towers adjoin the eastern transepts at Canterbury, though the effect is lessened by the subsequent raising of the transept walls. The immediate precedent for the Norman cathedral appears to be the eastern limb at Hereford, probably designed c 1080-1090 and consecrated by 1115. There was a large central apse opening from a single arch, and smaller apses at the ends of the aisles. Towers stood over the eastern bays of the aisles. The presbytery was laid out in three bays. 14 The designer of the Early English nave at Llandaff probably assumed that the apse and eastern towers would be demolished, for provision seems to have been made for towers over the eastern bays of the nave aisles, which would have made the earlier towers superfluous. This intention survived a change of design, but the towers do not appear to have been built.